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Buddhism is ancient, but not Hindusim or Vedic Brahminism. Early Buddhist texts were composed in Pāli and other Prakrit languages, early vernacular languages of ancient India. Scripts evolved from Aśokan Dhammalipi to Devanāgarī, shaping many modern Indian languages. Dhammalipi is the oldest script in India.
SWASTIKA: In Buddhism, the left-facing or right-facing swastika is a symbol of auspiciousness. It was used in early Buddhism as stylized footprints of the Buddha and later appeared on his chest, palms, and soles as a mark of divinity. It can also represent the Buddha’s eternal mind, the endless cycle of rebirth, and the Four Noble Truths.
TRIDENT: The trident (three branches) represents the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha.
OM: The Om, which forms the sound “A-U-M,” represents the universe and ultimate reality. It is considered the sound of creation and signifies the waking, dream, and deep sleep states, with the silence after representing pure consciousness.
These ancient Buddhist Symbols were adopted and used by Hindus much later.
The ancient Pali terms Inda (Indra) and Sakka (Śakra) for the king of gods, along with the concept of Brahma. Pali (the language of the Buddhist Tipiṭaka) are closely related Indo-Aryan languages. Pali (Prakrit) is the oldest language in Dhamma lipi (script) and later became Sanskrit (purified) from Pali, Prakrit language. Hinduism uses Sanskrit, which is not an ancient language and did not exist in BCE.
Inda (Indar): Indar is the king of Devas in Buddhism, calling him Inda or more commonly meaning "mighty" or Deva of thunder, who respects the Buddha.
Sakka: In Buddhist texts, Sakka is the ruler of the Tāvatiṃsa heaven. While he holds a similar role as a "king of gods," he is portrayed as a mortal, devoted follower of the Buddha rather than an eternal almighty god (Deva).
Brahma: Similarly, Brahma is a high-ranking deity in Buddhism, a high-level celestial being who respects the Buddha but is still subject to the cycle of rebirth (Samsara).
Hindus copied them later.
In Pāli, the language of the Theravada Buddhist Canon, numbers are used both for counting (cardinals) and for ordering (ordinals). The term Dhamma Lipi (literally "Dhamma Script") typically refers to the Brāhmī script used in Ashokan edicts to record Buddhist teachings.
Below are the names for the first ten numbers in Pāli, which are essential for understanding doctrinal lists like the "Three Jewels" or "Eightfold Path".
1 (Eka), Pathama (First); 2 (Dvi), Dutiya (Second); 3 (Ti), Titiya (Third); 4 (Catu), Catuttha (Fourth); 5 (Panca), Pancama (Fifth); 6 (Cha), Chattha (Sixth); 7 (Satta), Sattama (Seventh); 8 (Attha), Atthama (Eighth); 9 (Nava), Navama (Ninth); and 10 (Dasa), Dasama (Tenth).
Key Characteristics
Numerical Script (Dhamma Lipi)
While Pāli, Prakrit does have a unique Dhamma Lipi (script) and is often written in Roman letters or local scripts like Sinhala and Devanagari today, the ancient Dhamma Lipi (Brāhmī) used distinct symbols for numbers. For instance, "1" was often a single horizontal stroke, "2" was two strokes, and "3" was three strokes, which eventually evolved into the ancestors of modern Hindi-Arabic numerals.
Jivaka, the 5th-century BCE personal physician to the Buddha and King Bimbisara, was a legendary surgeon and herbalist whose practice blended Ayurveda with Buddhist principles of compassion. He revolutionized ancient medicine by performing complex surgeries and establishing care standards (pre/post-operative) while promoting herbal treatments, acting as a historical bridge in the development of Buddhist Ayurvedic practices.
Development and Key Figures in Ancient Indian Medicine
Jivak is honored as a "Thrice Crowned" physician, representing the peak of ancient Indian medical skill with practical care. He was also a disciple of the Buddha. He studied for seven years at the ancient University of Taxila under the sage Atreya. His work emphasized natural healing and herbs like ginger and neem, aligning medical practice with Buddhist values of non-violence and balance.
The Buddhist Mahakapi Jataka (Great Monkey King) likely influenced the development of the Hindu deity Hanuman through shared, ancient, pan-Indian folklore concerning sacred monkeys, which later merged with Vedic storm deities. The Jataka, portraying a self-sacrificing, noble monkey leader, merged with narratives of a powerful, flying, divine-born, and devoted servant in the Ramayana to form the composite figure of Hanuman.
Hindu Copy and Merging Narratives and Mythology: The character of Hanuman evolved from a heroic vanara (monkey) in early Ramayana versions to a prominent divine figure in later Hindu Puranas and literature like the Ramcharitmanas. He absorbed the noble, superhuman characteristics of the earlier, popular monkey-king archetype found in Buddhist Jatakas. While the Mahakapi Jataka highlights a moral, sacrificial role (often, the monkey dies), the Hindu mythological Hanuman evolved into an immortal.
Ancient India boasted renowned Buddhist universities such as Nalanda, Vikramshila, Valabhi, and Tashashila (Taxila), which were major Buddhist centers of learning. These institutions attracted scholars from across Asia to study Buddhism, logic, and philosophy. Ancient India was home to several world-renowned centers of learning. Buddhist universities often grew in connection with viharas (monasteries). There was no evidence of Vedic culture or university in ancient India. Vedic culture and Brahmanism created (mythologically) after 850 ACE. There is no evidence of Hindu or Vedic school and/or university in ancient India.
Nalanda, Ancient Buddhist University: Founded in the 5th century CE, it was the world’s first residential university. It hosted more than 10,000 students and taught diverse subjects beyond Buddhism, including logic, medicine, and mathematics.
Takshashila (Taxila): Often considered the world's oldest university (dating to ~700 BCE), it was a renowned Buddhist center. It pioneered subject governance, Ayurveda, and military science.
Vikramshila: Established in the 8th century CE, it specialized in Tantric Buddhism and was one of the premier universities of its era.
Odantapuri: A major center that played a vital role in spreading Buddhist education to Tibet.
Yogachara (est. 2nd–4th century CE) is a major Mahayana Buddhist school focusing on "mind-only" meditation and consciousness. Founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu (4th–5th century CE), it means "yoga practice" or "one whose practice is yoga." It is a philosophical school, not just a physical practice, aimed at understanding consciousness. In essence, Yoga is a broader, ancient Buddhist tradition, while Yogachara is specific. Much later, during British rule in India, Brahmin writers copied and used "yoga."
Chach was a chamberlain who became king after marrying the widow of the last Buddhist Rai ruler. During the Arab conquest by Muhammad bin Qasim (712 CE), which occurred under the rule of Chach's son, Dahir, it was Chach, who often collaborated with the Arab invaders rather than supporting the Buddhist monks and destroying Buddhist temples. While the Chachnama is a key source, it is a 13th-century Persian text, a strictly contemporary account of the 7th-century events. It depicts the shift in power from Buddhist to Brahmin rule, with later tensions often highlighted, and it describes this as a betrayal of his former Buddhist patrons. The "betrayal" often cited in later histories frequently refers to the invading Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim.
Paper was invented in China, with the traditionally cited date being ACE 105 by Ts'ai Lun (or Cai Lun), an official of the Han Dynasty. During the 8th century, Chinese paper making spread to the Islamic world, replacing papyrus. By the 11th century, papermaking was brought to Europe, where it replaced animal-skin-based parchment and wood panels.
Paper was introduced to India primarily via Central Asia and Tibet around the mid-7th century CE.
First Arrival in India: Chinese Buddhist travelers and monks brought paper into India around 645–671 CE, according to UNESCO. Historical evidence suggests paper was used in the Indian subcontinent by the second half of the 7th century. Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, such as I-Ching, recorded that Indians used paper for items like hats, umbrellas, and sanitation.
Early Evidence: The oldest Sanskrit paper manuscript found in Kashmir dates to 1089.
Widespread adoption occurred between the 10th and 13th centuries, with manufacturing established in the Delhi Sultanate by the 13th century. Before paper, Indians used materials like birch bark (Bhoja pattra) in the north and palm leaves (tada-patra) in the south for writing.
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